Beware: Congress Just Outlawed Hemp-Derived THC Starting Next November 12

I discovered another reason to hate Washington DC politicians. I’ve been binge drinking once a week for decades, but I recently decided I have a better time taking a THC edible with 1 or 2 glasses of wine. I realized it was more fun to be stoned and a little drunk than to be totally shit-faced. After THC wears off, I feel pleasant, unlike an alcohol-induced hangover. As soon as I made this decision, Congress voted to make hemp-derived THC products illegal again. The 2018 Farm bill had a loophole that allowed THC derived from industrial hemp to be manufactured and sold legally. That allowed the sale of products with THC (the intoxicating compound found in marijuana) online, in CBD stores, smoke shops, and even gas stations. Both industrial hemp and marijuana are the same species–Cannabis sativa. They are simply different varieties of the same species of plant. Industrial hemp is legal, but marijuana is still illegal in most states. Industrial hemp has very low amounts of THC and is used to manufacture many products including food, textiles, and construction materials. Marijuana is a variety of hemp bred to have a very high amount of THC. Andy Harris, a Republican Nazi douchebag from Maryland, added an amendment to close the loophole in the bill that re-opened the government after the latest shutdown. Harris is a stupid shmuck who believes marijuana is a gateway drug–a myth that was debunked a long time ago. But he is a Republican, and they believe in all kinds of stupid shit that isn’t true. He probably hates potheads because most of us are liberal.

Andy Harris, the MAGA shithead Congressman from Maryland who is waging a war against marijuana. He even thinks marijuana should still be classified as being as dangerous as heroin. I hate this fucking piece of shit.

Closing the loophole is going to destroy a $28.3 billion industry or send most of it underground. Incidentally, lobbyists representing marijuana farmers from states where marijuana is legal also supported closing the loophole, so they would have less competition. That doesn’t seem fair to people living in states where it is still illegal. It angers me because I won’t be able to go to the store or order it online. I don’t live anywhere close to a state with legalized marijuana. The entire southeast region of the U.S. is so backward.

There is a grace period. The ban on shipping hemp-derived THC products doesn’t take effect until November 12, 2026, and THC users have the time to stock up on a supply of edibles. However, there is a problem with long-term storage of THC. THC degrades over time and loses its potency. Scientists publish studies about THC potency degradation in forensic police science journals. 1 study found just a 2.6% loss in THC potency after a year kept in storage. Other studies determined THC potency was reduced by 16% after 1 year, 26% after 2 years, and 34% after 3 years. Manufacturers recommend consumption within 6-12 months of purchase for best quality. THC degrades into CBD and CBN. CBD does not cause a high, though it has a sedative effect. CBD levels increase over time as THC breaks down, so the product will eventually make a user less high but sleepier. CBN can get people high in high doses. Exposure to heat, light, and air accelerate the degradation of THC potency.

The best solution is to buy large quantities of hemp-derived THC and store them in airtight containers in the freezer. Under these conditions, the THC should stay potent for over 2 years, if these studies are valid. Gummies and candies will maintain best quality for longer than other edible products.

Making one’s own THC product from industrial hemp is not a realistic option. The manufacture of THC from industrial hemp requires specialized lab equipment, specialized lab know how, and the use of dangerous chemicals. A special permit is also required to receive industrial hemp in the mail.

References:

Graftson, K; K. Anderssen, N. Patterson, J. Dalgaard, S. Dunn

“Effects of Long Term Storage on Secondary Metabolite Profiles of Cannabis Resin”

Forensic Science International 301 Augusts 2019

Trafin, I; G. Dabija, D. Vaircanu, F. Laurentiu

“The Influence of Long Term Storage Conditions on the Stability of Cannabinoids derived from Cannabis Resin”

Revista de Chemie 63 (4) 422-427

Long-tailed Weasels and Timber Rattlesnakes Prey on Each Other

Long-tailed weasels (Neogale frenata) and timber rattlesnakes (Crotalus horridus) prey on each other. During the summer rattlesnakes will kill and consume weasels which are no bigger than rats–a common item in their diet. However, during winter when rattlesnakes are dormant, weasels enter their dens, drag them into the cold, and eat them. Mark Lotterhand, a naturalist who publishes videos on youtube, has documented the latter behavior. He frequently sets up trail cams next to rattlesnake dens, also known as hibernaculums. Reptiles don’t hibernate like mammals, but they do brumate–a lethargic state. Brumating rattlesnakes are too sluggish to defend themselves from warm-blooded quick weasels. These fierce little mammals often hunt for white-footed mice in rattlesnake dens, and they likely learned to exploit the snakes when they have trouble moving. Mr. Lotterhand doesn’t think this behavior threatens the meta population, but areas with low scattered populations of rattlesnakes could be more impacted.

Video and screenshot of the video showing weasels preying on rattlesnakes. From Mark Lotterhand’s YouTube channel. The range map is bullshit. I’m unaware of any scientific study that did a county-by-county survey of weasels. I’m certain the actual range map would be much patchier.

Long-tailed weasels prefer forest and forest edge habitat and don’t live where industrial scale farming has converted the land into huge grain fields. They depend upon rocky crevices and old growth den trees for habitat, and this may explain why I’ve never seen a weasel in or near Augusta, Georgia where I live. Until about 100 years ago, much of the Augusta area was surrounded by extensive cotton fields. (The boll weevil put an end to that.) In Richmond County there are few rocky areas and no old growth forests. Skunks are rare too. The only weasel I’ve ever seen in Georgia was during 1976 in Athens, Georgia when a young lady brought a baby weasel on the school bus to show to everybody. She’d found it in the woods and adopted the small animal. There are boulder fields in the piedmont region where Athens is located. The rocky crevices and chipmunks that live in them attract weasels. Range maps indicating weasels live with a continuous distribution over most of the U.S. are bullshit. I’m unaware of any county-by-county survey of weasels in the scientific literature, and I’m sure their distribution is much patchier.

Timber rattlesnakes do occur in the Augusta, Georgia area, and my neighbors hate and fear them. On one occasion, a former neighbor killed 2, and he was furious at me because I let the grass in my yard get tall. To me, they are just an interesting part of nature. One early 18th century expedition through the wilds of Kentucky constantly encountered rattlesnakes. (See: https://markgelbart.wordpress.com/2012/04/20/excerpts-from-the-journal-of-an-expedition-to-kentucky-in-1750/ )It was ideal habitat for rattlesnakes–lots of rocky woods, mostly uninhabited by people.

Long-tailed weasels have lived in North America for at least 500,000 years. They are well adapted for hunting small mammals. Their small shape and size allow them to enter rodent barrows and travel under snow. Pleistocene weasel remains have been found at 8 sites in Florida. At the Ladds fossil site in Bartow County, Georgia specimens (a cheekbone and a few teeth) that compared favorably to long-tailed weasel were found in 1966. (Google AI was ignorant of this fact. Maybe after I publish this article that information will be found on a google search.) Until 2021 the scientific name for this species was Mustela frenata, but it was changed to Neogale frenata.

Reference:

Mark Lotterhand’s youtube channel https://www.youtube.com/@lotterhand

Patterson, B.; et al

“On the Nomenclature of the American clade of Weasels (Carnivora Mustelidae)”

Journal of Animal Diversity 3 (2) 2021

The Jurassic Age Dinosaur Extinctions in Western North America

The extinction of all dinosaurs (except birds) at the end of the Cretaceous Age was made famous 45 years ago when a crater was found in the Gulf of Mexico–confirming a comet impact as the cause of the extinctions 66 million years ago. A lesser-known local extinction of dinosaurs occurred 145 million years ago at the end of the Jurassic Age. From geological and paleontological evidence scientists determined dinosaurs were diverse and abundant in western North America from 152 million years ago to 145 million years BP, but these species became extinct after a sudden cataclysmic event. Scientists suspect a mega volcano eruption rubbed out all the dinosaurs in this region then. During the late Jurassic sauropods such as diplodocus (the largest known land animal in earth’s history), allosaurs, stegosaurs, and small ornithomimids (bird-like dinosaurs but not ancestral to birds) dominated the faunal composition. After the extinctions Cretaceous Age species gradually colonized the region and ecologically replaced the Jurassic Age species, although sauropods continued to live in other regions of the earth. Iguanodons, ankylosaurs, and smaller species of ornithomimids were the new inhabitants of the region. The early Cretaceous dinosaur composition was less diverse in this region than the late Jurassic.

The Morrison formation consists of sedimentary rocks that have the best evidence of Jurassic Age dinosaurs in North America.

Scientists found an interesting faunal turnover between the late Jurassic and the early Cretaceous in the Morrison Formation located mostly in Utah. Poster from James Kirk’s twitter feed.

Plant fossils from the Morris Formation include conifers, cycads, and ancestors of ginko.

The northern part of the Morris Formation yielded fossil remains of a different species of allosaur than the southern part. Scientists don’t know why 2 different species evolved. They don’t know of any physical barrier between the 2 areas.

Sauropods like this diplodocus and stegosaurs were the main species of large plant-eaters in western North America before the Jurassic Morrison extinctions.

Stegosaurs didn’t make it to the Cretaceous.

Evidence of this faunal turnover comes from the Morrison Formation–mountains of sedimentary rock found in western North America, mostly Utah. During the late Jurassic this area was a floodplain bordered by a newly forming mountain range. Cycads and conifers grew on the plain, and rivers flowed from the mountains into a vast marshy lake. Some of these trees have been preserved in petrified forests located in Dinosaur National Monument. The northern and southern part of this region hosted 2 different species allosaurs and 2 different species of carnosaurs. Scientists haven’t figured out why the northern and southern parts of this region had different species of carnivorous dinosaurs. They know of no physical barrier that would have contributed to this speciation. The region shifted frequently between wet and dry climate cycles, but scientists don’t think this was a factor in the sudden extinctions of Jurassic Age dinosaurs here. Dinosaurs were thriving and diverse up until their sudden end here.

Reference:

Kirkland, J.; E. Sampson, M. Wizecurch, and D. Deblieux

“Paleosols in the Lower Yellow Cat Member of the Cedar Mountain Formation in Eastern Utah Indicate the Earliest Cretaceous (Borrasian) in the Colorado Plateau was Exceptionally Wet”

75th Annual Meeting of the Rocky Mountain Geological Survey 2025

Maidmont, S.

“Diversity Through Time and Space in the Upper Jurassic Morrison Formation, western USA”

Journal of Vertebrate Zoology 43 (5) 2023

Did Passenger Pigeons Expand Wild Ginger Populations During the Holocene?

It’s a mystery how many species of woodland herbs recolonized New England and Southern Canada following the end of the last Ice Age. Glaciers scoured away the topsoil, leaving no ungerminated seeds, and statistical models suggest that many species of woodland herbs could not have re-expanded their range as rapidly as they did. Canada wild ginger (Asarum canadensis) is an example of a woodland herb that recolonized deglaciated territory faster than models suggest is possible. Wild ginger relies on ants for dispersal. Ants carry the fleshy seeds to their nests where the fatty covering is consumed. This is known as myrmecochory. The seeds are then discarded and will eventually germinate. Wild ginger also spreads via roots. Scientists calculated how far this species could expand its range considering its dependence on ants and root growth. Ants can transport the seeds up to 35 meters in 1 season. They determined this species could only have expanded by 30 miles over 16,000 years. Instead, this species expanded its range by over 960 miles. Scientists are stumped, but I think I’ve figured out an obvious solution.

A colony of Canada wild ginger.

Range map of Canada wild ginger. It expanded its range into New England and southern Canada within the past 16,000 years from refugia south of the Ice Sheet.

Passenger pigeon range (before extinction). Note how closely the breeding range of this species corresponds with the range of Canada wild ginger. I hypothesize passenger pigeons spread wild ginger seeds in their dung, and that explains how wild ginger expanded its range so rapidly following the end of the last Ice Age.

Ants spread wild ginger seeds, but ant propagation does not explain how wild ginger expanded its range so rapidly into recently deglaciated regions.

A few explanations for the rapid recolonization of New England and southern Canada by wild ginger have been proposed. Perhaps, the seeds adhered to the hooves or fur of migrating mammals, such as caribou or bison; or a storm blew the seeds a great distance. Wild ginger refugia may have existed in nunataks–unglaciated territory, usually on elevated hills, that occurred within glaciers. However, I hypothesize an obvious solution to this mystery. It seems likely passenger pigeons (Ectopistes migratorius) fed upon wild ginger seeds and defecated the viable seeds at a much greater distance than ants carry them away. It may not be coincidence the area recolonized by wild ginger happened to closely correlate with the breeding range of this species. Armies of passenger pigeons used to forage on the forest floor in eastern North America devouring all the acorns, nuts, and seeds. I think wild ginger and other woodland herbs recolonized deglaciated North America thanks to passenger pigeons. I can’t figure out how to test this hypothesis. An experiment could be conducted to see if extant species of doves or pigeons actually will eat wild ginger seeds. The isotopic signature of wild ginger can’t be distinguished from other species passenger pigeon ate so we can’t get the answer by analyzing passenger pigeon specimens in museums. We could also see, if wild ginger seeds remain viable when they pass through a pigeon gut.

Wild ginger is not related to true ginger (Zingiber oficianale) but reportedly has a similar spicy aroma. Indians used the root as a seasoning and medicine, but it is a carcinogen, like tobacco–another cancer-causing plant Indians introduced to Western culture. Snakeroot oil is made by grinding up wild ginger roots and distilling the liquid. Modern medical scientists do not recommend its use.

Reference:

Cain, M.; H. Dumany, and A. Muir

“Seed Dispersal and the Holocene Migration of Woodland Herbs”

Ecological Monographs August 1998

https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1890/0012-9615(1998)068%5B0325:SDATHM%5D2.0.CO%3B2

Cougars Kill California Condors

The California condor (Gymnogyps californiana) was the first species listed as endangered after the Endangered Species Preservation Act passed, and 40 years ago, there were so few, biologists captured the entire population, so they could be bred in captivity. Since then, wildlife officials have been releasing some back into the wild, and their numbers are slowly increasing. They still face a number of serious threats. When they scavenge animals killed by hunters using lead shot, they get lead poisoning. They also are poisoned when they consume rodents that died after eating poisoned baits. Windmills slaughter birds of all kinds. One year (2010), scientists found 3 condors killed by cougars (Puma concolor). Apparently, the condors were roosting in trees near a carcass they’d been feeding upon, and the cougars climbed into the trees and killed them in their sleep.

Scientists found 3 California condors killed by cougars in New Bitter Creek National Wildlife Refuge. Map from the below referenced journal article.

Evidence a cougar killed a condor. From the below reference.

The entire population of California condors was captured 40 years ago. Captive breeding brought them back from the edge of extinction but they still face some serious threats.

California condors released back into the wild may be naive to the threat of natural predators. Andean condors (Vultur gryphis) co-exist with cougars in South America, but there are few or no known cases of cougars preying upon them. Cougars benefit Andean condors because the birds scavenge upon llamas and deer killed by cougars. Flocks of condors may even drive cougars from their kills. (They are very large birds.)

During the Pleistocene California condors occurred all across North America, and fossil specimens have been found in New York and Florida. Following the extinction of Pleistocene megafauna, the range of the California condor shrunk to the Pacific coast where they survived by feeding upon whale carcasses. At first they benefitted from the arrival of Europeans because they scavenged all the dead livestock on the range. But lead poisoning from hunters’ shotgun shells soon began to take their toll.

Reference:

Branney, A.; J. Brandt, J. Felch, J. Lombardi

“Observations of a Puma Predation on Endangered California Condors: Implications for Species Recovery”

Ecosphere 16 (6) June 2025

https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/ecs2.70255

Halloween is not as Horrifying as Real Life in the USA Today

Good guys don’t wear masks. Real life is not like a superhero comic book that depicts masked men saving humanity. People who have to hide their identity to perform their jobs know their actions are morally repugnant. ICE agents wear masks because they don’t want their identities known. It’s the exact same reason bank robbers wear masks. ICE agents remind me of the thugs who captured and sent my relatives to the gas chambers during the Holocaust. Though most deported immigrants don’t face certain death, some do. They fled their countries of origin to escape violent gangs or dangerous political situations. ICE agents are cowardly NAZI scumbags, also reminiscent of the KKK. If they were righteous, they wouldn’t hide their identities.

The entire premise for these mass deportations is based on racist falsehoods. Undocumented immigrants don’t take jobs away from legal citizens. There is a shortage of labor in the U.S. because of the aging and rising affluence of the population, and companies desperately need more workers of all kinds. Undocumented immigrants don’t take government services away from legal citizens. They are not even eligible for federal benefits. They contribute more to tax revenue than they cost, especially in the long run, and payroll tax revenue from immigrants is the best way to save Social Security. Undocumented immigrants commit much lower rates of violent crime than legal citizens. The vast majority of gang members and drug dealers in the U.S. are legal citizens. Mass deportations won’t lower drug overdoses.

President Trump promised to be extra cruel to brown-skinned people, and he is fulfilling that promise. It’s so shameful that the American people voted for this. Trump is sending federal troops to intimidate people who didn’t support him in the last election. Trump falsely claimed he’s sending troops to cities to reduce crime, but violent crime rates were already shrinking. I don’t know why I haven’t heard a single mainstream media call out this obvious racism. With 2 exceptions Trump is not sending troops to red states which have much higher murder rates–proof this policy is racist. The states with the highest murder rates according to FBI statistics are Louisiana, Alabama, Oklahoma, Arkansas, Ohio, Indiana, and Alaska. Trump is sending troops to just 2 cities in red states–Memphis and New Orleans, but those cities are controlled by black politicians. He is not sending troops to most red states because they are run by white people who support him. Instead, he is sending troops to intimidate black people and liberals, possibly as a precursor to lower rates of voter turnout during upcoming elections. Trump has mentioned sending troops to seize voting machines.

Red States have the highest murder rates, but Trump is sending troops to liberal cities controlled by black politicians to intimidate people who don’t support him. It’s obviously racist.

ICE agents wear masks to hide their identities, like bank robbers and KKK members. They are not the good guys.

ICE agents are cowardly, Nazi, scumbags. They are un-American.

Many legal citizens think they shouldn’t care if undocumented immigrants get deported. Their self-assurance is unwarranted. Between 2015-2020 70 legals citizens were deported, and since Trump took office at least 170 legal citizens have been detained. Most people don’t carry around their birth certificates, and contrary to popular belief, law enforcement agents don’t always give people a phone call in a timely fashion…if at all. I wonder how these people would feel, if men with masks abducted them and threw them in a detention center. ICE agents are picking up many people simply because they have brown skin. Some legal citizens have been detained, then refused release, even after offering proof of citizenship. ICE agents falsely claimed their documents were “fake.” In addition to this government terror reign inside the U.S., now the Trump administration is murdering brown-skinned commercial fishermen and falsely claiming they are drug smugglers, so that they look good among their racist supporters.

It’s ironic that the biggest criminal in U.S. history is having so many innocent people murdered and detained. The Trump crime family has used the presidency to enrich themselves by an estimated $3.4 billion, just since he took office last year. And there are millions of chumps who wrongly believe Trump is so rich, he only took the job from the goodness of his heart. Trump is a monster supported by un-American pigs.

Vulture Archaeology

Bearded vultures (Gypaetus barbatus) nest on cliffs, often inside caves and rock shelters where over many years they accumulate much organic debris, some of it man made. The dry high-altitude climate preserves these artifacts and specimens for centuries. Between 2008-2014 scientists studied 12 vulture nests found in the mountains of southern Spain. They catalogued all the items they found and carbon-dated them. They counted 2,117 bones, 86 hooves, 43 eggshells, 23 items constructed by people from esparto grass, 72 pieces of leather, 1 crossbow bolt, 1 wooden lance, slingshots, rope, and basket fragments. Some of these items dated to the Middle Ages and were 600 years old. People in this area made shoes from esparto grass and whole shoes were found in nests. The vultures used these items to line their nests and keep eggs and nestlings warm. The crossbow bolt and wooden lance were likely from carcasses of scavenged animals.

Bearded vulture and old vulture nest. From the below referenced study.

Bearded vulture range map.

Bearded vultures drop bones, tortoises, and small animals from great altitudes to break them for easier consumption.

Unlike most species of vultures, bearded vultures have feathers on their neck because they consume a cleaner diet of just bone and not rotting flesh.

Some manmade items found in bearded vulture nests excavated in southern Spain where the species has been extirpated for at least 70 years.

Bearded vultures are huge birds weighing up to 17 lbs. Unlike other species of vultures, they have feathered necks and actively hunt prey for a significant part of their diet, making them quite unique. Bones make up 70%-90% of their diet–also different from other vultures that primarily eat flesh. This explains why they have feathers on their neck. They don’t have to stick their heads in rotting flesh. They carry bones to great heights and drop them, so the bone will break, exposing the nutrient rich marrow. They do the same thing to living prey, including tortoises, hyraxes, marmots, hares, and even monitor lizards. (That must be terrifying for these small animals. Nature is monstrous.) They are known to knock ibex and goats off cliffs–another way they actively hunt prey.

Bearded vultures no longer occur in southern Spain. They were extirpated there over 70 years ago. Today, they live in the Himalayas and parts of Africa, and they have been reintroduced to the Alps.

Reference:

Margalida, A. et. al.

“The Bearded Vulture as an Accumulator of Historical Remains: Insight for Future Ecological Biocultural Studies”

The Scientific Naturalist September 2025

https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ecy.70191

More Species of Mammals Discovered Living in Costa Rica

If the U.S. government ever expelled me from this country, I would choose to live in Costa Rica. It’s a beautiful tropical paradise. The cost of living is very cheap and reportedly delicious fresh produce is available year-round. 28% of Costa Rica is protected wilderness, and I can imagine living in a home next to a nature reserve. Costa Rica is situated between North and South America, and accordingly it’s 1 of the most ecologically diverse regions in the world with more species of mammals than most other countries, despite its small size. I’ve written about Costa Rican mammal diversity before, but I came across an article updating the list of mammal species that occur there. Over the past 10 years, 22 new species of mammals have been discovered living in Costa Rica bringing the total number of mammal species known to occur in the country to an astonishing 271. By contrast the U.S. is 74 times bigger than Costa Rica but has less than twice as many species.

11 species of possum are known to live in Costa Rica.

Whales are now classified with the even-toed ungulates due to genetic evidence.

The Tacaruna bat was recently rediscovered to be living in Costa Rica after not being seen for 31 years.

6 species of cats, including the oncilla or northern tiger cat are known to occur in Costa Rica. All populations of these species are decreasing in abundance.

Dozens of species of rodents live in Costa Rica.

6 species of raccoons and their relatives live in Costa Rica.

The authors of the below referenced paper reviewed all of the scientific literature published over the past 10 years to update the list of species living in Costa Rica. They added 22 species to the list. 10 are bats and 8 are rodents. Some species were known formerly to have lived in Costa Rica but hadn’t been seen in decades. A colony of thumbless bats (Feripterus horrens) was rediscovered living in a tourist cabin after not beeing seen for 44 years. I couldn’t even find a photo of this species on the internet. The Tacaruna bat (Lasiurius castaneus) was rediscovered after a 31 yar absence. Costa Rica is home to 12 species of possums, 3 species of anteaters, 2 species of sloths, 2 species of armadillos, 4 species of monkeys, 6 species of cats, 6 species in the raccoon family and dozens of species of rodents and bats. Populations of all 6 species of cats are decreasing. Populations of 103 species of mammals here are stable, while 18 species are decreasing. 84 species are of unknown status. 3 species are increasing, including coyotes, sea lions, and spinner dolphins.

I learned about an interesting taxonomic controversy when reading the paper referenced below. Genetic evidence suggests whales should be classified with artiodactyls (hooved animals). Whales were formerly classified as cetaceans but apparently the genetic differences between whales, hippos, pigs, deer, etc. is not as great as assumed based on anatomical characteristics. (Of course, not all scientists agree with this reclassification.) Now, scientists can’t decide what name should be given to the combined whale and hooved animal classification. They’ve come up with all sorts of ridiculous names, but they’ve decided to call this order cetartiodactyl.

Reference:

Mora, J.; and L. Ruedas

“Updated List of the Mammals of Costa Rica, with notes on Recent Taxonomic Changes

Zootaxa 5357 (4) October 2023

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/374869193_Updated_list_of_the_mammals_of_Costa_Rica_with_notes_on_recent_taxonomic_changes

Glyptodonts were Armadillos, not Just Close Relatives

I find some of the most interesting and surprising topics for my blog from reading obscure scientific journals. I recently discovered Zootaxa, a journal I never encountered in my 18 years of doing research for this blog. I searched through their archives looking for additional topics and found the subject of last week’s blog entry, but in the bibliography of that article, I found reference to yet another surprising paper. Scientists long classified the extinct glyptodonts as relatives of armadillos but not actually armadillos. Glyptodonts were much larger and most likely subsisted on grass, while armadillos mostly eat invertebrates. Glyptodonts had stiff turtle-like shells; armadillos had flexible carapaces. Some scientists noticed anatomical similarities in the skulls and jaws of glyptodonts and small pink fairy armadillos in the Chlamyphoridae Family, and they did suspect a close relationship between the 2. Scientists succeeded in extracting DNA from a 12,000-year-old glyptodont carapace. They were able to map the whole genome. Amazingly, they determined glyptodonts were not just close relatives of armadillos but should actually be classified in the same family as the diminutive pink fairy armadillos.

Surprisingly, the extant pink fairy armadillo, the smallest species of armadillo, is the closest living relative of the huge extinct glyptodonts. Evolution can occur rapidly because scientists believe glyptodonts evolved to their enormous size shortly after divergence from fairy armadillos.

Based on genetic evidence, glyptodonts should be classified with fairy armadillos. From the below referenced study by Delgur et al.

DNA from doedicurus, a type of glyptodont was used in the 2 below referenced studies.

Glyptodonts were about the size and shape of an old-fashioned Volkswagon.

The species of glyptodont used in the below referenced studies belonged to the Doedicurus genus. They were huge animals 12 feet long and weighing 3000 pounds–about the size and shape of an old-fashioned Volkswagon. Some species had spiked clubs on their tails they used for defense and probably battles over mates. Scientists believe the first species weighed just 15 pounds, but they rapidly evolved into a much larger size and a diet dominated by plant matter instead of invertebrates. They diverged from smaller armadillos about 35 million years ago, according to genetic evidence. This evidence is consistent with the fossil record. Glyptodonts first appear in the fossil record about the same time. This rapid evolution is a good example of punctuated equilibrium, a process of evolution marked by isolated episodes of rapid speciation between long periods of little change. I hypothesize the rapid evolution of glyptodonts occurred after some unknown extinction event that left an ecological niche open for a large grass-eating animal.

There are 2 species of extant fairy armadillos–Chlamyphorus truncatus and Calyptophraetus retusus. The former lives underground in a desert area of Argentina where they feed upon insects, worms, snails, and some plant matter. The latter lives in scrubland habitat along the borders of Argentina, Bolivia, and Paraguay. Chlamyphorus is considered endangered; the status of Calyptophraetus is unknown. These types of armadillos can bury themselves in desert sand with surprising speed, but they still fall prey to domestic dogs and cats.

References:

Delgur, F.’ et. al.

“The Phylogenetic Affiliation of the Extinct Glyptodonts”

Current Biology 26 (4) Feb 2016

Mitchell, K. et. al.

“Ancient DNA From the Extinct South America Giant Glyptodont Doedicurus sp. (Xenartha Glyptodontidae) Reveals that Glyptodonts Evolved from Eocene Armadillos”

Molecular Ecology 14 2016

New Species of Extinct Pampathere (Holmesina criptae) Found in Brazil

Until about 11,000 years ago, armadillos the size of bears roamed parts of South America and southeastern North America. The species that lived in Florida and coastal Georgia was Holmesina septentrionalsis and is known by the common name of northern pampathere. There were 3 genera of giant armadillos including the tonnicinctus, pampatherium, and holmesina. They should not be confused with glyptodonts, though they were related. Glyptodonts were much larger and had stiff turtle-like shells whereas pampathere carapaces were flexible, allowing them to roll up in the shape of a ball to protect themselves from predators. There were 6 species in the holmesina genus. Most species lived in South America–their continent of origin.

The largest pampatheres grew to 9 feet long. The species that lived in Florida grew to about 7 feet long.

Location of the site where 2 complete specimens of a newly discovered species of pampathere was discovered. From the below referenced paper.

Skulls of the newly discovered species. From the below referenced paper.

Image from the below referenced paper.

Cave explorers discovered the complete skeletons of 2 pampatheres in Lapinha Cave located in Bahia, Brazil. Scientists examined the specimens and determined they belonged to a previously unknown species, and they gave it the scientific name Holmesina cryptae. It had a more triangular-shaped head than any other species of pampathere. Its osteoderms, the boney plates that make up its carapace, were similar in some ways to those in the pampatherium genus and similar in other ways to species in the holmesina genus. Based on skull morphology, they placed it in the holmesina genus.

Reference:

Mauro, J.; F. Gais, F. Galleri, M. Fernandes

“A New and Most Complete Pampathere (Mammalia, Xenartha, Cingulata) From the Quaternary of Bahia, Brazil”

Zootaxa 4661 (3) 2019

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/335474229_A_new_and_most_complete_pampathere_Mammalia_Xenarthra_Cingulata_from_the_Quaternary_of_Bahia_Brazil